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Posts tagged with "medicine"

Dec 22
ancientpeoples: Treatment methods for oral and dental ailments in Ancient Egypt Like us, the ancient Egyptians weren’t spared from oral ailments. Their diet, which was full of fibre and coarse, often uncooked, vegetables, in combination with a dental hygiene that possibly wasn’t up to our standards, caused various diseases such as attrition, caries and periodontitis. But the Egyptians were inventive, and not unversed in medical practices: they had devised many treatments for the various affections that bothered them, both chirurgical and medicinal in nature. Molars suffering from attrition Common diseases Attrition was by far the most common affection in ancient Egypt. Caused by the coarse diet (which may also have lacked necessary minerals and vitamins) and the presence of sand, husks, and sometimes even straw, in their bread, many Egyptians suffered from this condition. The skulls and jaws found in burial shafts and tombs almost all show attrition to some degree. This may not sound like a very serious disease, but attrition, when left unchecked, can be a stepping stone to much more severe issues. It can lead to abscesses, inflammation of the gums and jawbone, and tooth loss. Despite a diet free of refined sugar, caries was still fairly well represented amongst Egypt’s pearly whites. Interestingly enough, this disease seemed to have been much more common among the elite than it was among lower classes. This may be attributed to the higher sugar content in the diet of higher class Egyptians. Other conditions, most of them attested in medical papyri such as papyrus Ebers, were dental abscesses (“purulency in the gums”), receding gums (“a tooth which gnaws against an opening in the flesh”), loose teeth, ulcerative stomatitis (“eating ulcer on the gums”), periodontitis (“blood-eating”), alveolar diseases, dental sepsis and calculus. Lower jaw with traces of a periodontal abscess (the small hole in the bone) Cures, treatments and dentists So what did the ancient Egyptians do about this? Dental conditions aren’t to be taken lightly: they can very well prove lethal if they remain untreated. There’s some discussion on whether or not the profession of dentist existed in Pharaonic Egypt, mostly because of the seeming lack of actual surgery to cure these affections. To some extent, physicians in Egypt relied on spells and other magic for their treatments, but medicinal therapy was just as big a part of this. The papyri Ebers, Hearst and Berlin give us quite some recipes which could very well have made a difference by alleviating the pain or even inhibiting inflammation. If we define the term dentist as one who knows and attempts to cure diseases of the mouth, then there certainly have been dentists in Pharaonic times. The papyrus Ebers has eleven recipes which pertain to oral issues. Four of these are remedies for loose teeth: the tooth in question is either ‘packed’ or ‘filled’ (the translation and therefore our interpretation is a little ambiguous) with a mixture that is akin to a modern day composite filling: a filler agent (ground barley) is mixed with a liquid matrix (honey) and an antiseptic agent (yellow ochre). This is either used as an actual filling, or as a splint to keep the tooth in place. Egyptians also had various mouthwashes and mixtures that had to be chewed and then spit out, meant to combat gum disease. Some of these have more active ingredients than the others, and they certainly seem to have at least provided the patient with some manner of pain relief. These recipes have ingredients such as sweet beer, creeping cinquefoil, bran and celery in different compositions. Some of the mouthwashes were for the specific purpose of maintaining a healthy mouth and teeth. But not everything is purely medicinal in Egyptian medicine. The Edwin Smith surgical papyrus gives us treatments that are, as the title suggests, much more surgical in nature. One case handles the dislocation of a jaw, and the treatment for this hasn’t changed in over five thousand years. Some of the discovered jaws and skulls have evidence of additional treatment next to the application of medicine. It’s not altogether impossible that Egyptian dentists knew how to drain an abscess, or cut away cankered gums. Pharaonic physicians were no strangers to reconstruction works: there have been three instances of a dental bridge: one or more lost teeth reattached by means of a gold or silver wire to the surrounding teeth. However, it’s a bit unclear whether these works were performed during the life of the patient or after death – to tidy them up, as it were, before their burial. All in all, the ancient Egyptians were very attached to their pearly whites, and took great care to treat the diseases they knew as best as they could. They were skilled in medicine and surgery, relying on actual treatment just as much, or perhaps even more, as they did on magic spells and prayers to the Gods. Hesy-re, “Head of Dentists” - A Third Dynasty physician Aah, the wonderful memories of my first year’s paper. <3

ancientpeoples:

Treatment methods for oral and dental ailments in Ancient Egypt

Like us, the ancient Egyptians weren’t spared from oral ailments. Their diet, which was full of fibre and coarse, often uncooked, vegetables, in combination with a dental hygiene that possibly wasn’t up to our standards, caused various diseases such as attrition, caries and periodontitis. But the Egyptians were inventive, and not unversed in medical practices: they had devised many treatments for the various affections that bothered them, both chirurgical and medicinal in nature.

image

Molars suffering from attrition

Common diseases

Attrition was by far the most common affection in ancient Egypt. Caused by the coarse diet (which may also have lacked necessary minerals and vitamins) and the presence of sand, husks, and sometimes even straw, in their bread, many Egyptians suffered from this condition. The skulls and jaws found in burial shafts and tombs almost all show attrition to some degree. This may not sound like a very serious disease, but attrition, when left unchecked, can be a stepping stone to much more severe issues. It can lead to abscesses, inflammation of the gums and jawbone, and tooth loss.

Despite a diet free of refined sugar, caries was still fairly well represented amongst Egypt’s pearly whites. Interestingly enough, this disease seemed to have been much more common among the elite than it was among lower classes. This may be attributed to the higher sugar content in the diet of higher class Egyptians.

Other conditions, most of them attested in medical papyri such as papyrus Ebers, were dental abscesses (“purulency in the gums”), receding gums (“a tooth which gnaws against an opening in the flesh”), loose teeth, ulcerative stomatitis (“eating ulcer on the gums”), periodontitis (“blood-eating”), alveolar diseases, dental sepsis and calculus.

image

Lower jaw with traces of a periodontal abscess (the small hole in the bone)

Cures, treatments and dentists

So what did the ancient Egyptians do about this? Dental conditions aren’t to be taken lightly: they can very well prove lethal if they remain untreated. There’s some discussion on whether or not the profession of dentist existed in Pharaonic Egypt, mostly because of the seeming lack of actual surgery to cure these affections. To some extent, physicians in Egypt relied on spells and other magic for their treatments, but medicinal therapy was just as big a part of this. The papyri Ebers, Hearst and Berlin give us quite some recipes which could very well have made a difference by alleviating the pain or even inhibiting inflammation. If we define the term dentist as one who knows and attempts to cure diseases of the mouth, then there certainly have been dentists in Pharaonic times.

The papyrus Ebers has eleven recipes which pertain to oral issues. Four of these are remedies for loose teeth: the tooth in question is either ‘packed’ or ‘filled’ (the translation and therefore our interpretation is a little ambiguous) with a mixture that is akin to a modern day composite filling: a filler agent (ground barley) is mixed with a liquid matrix (honey) and an antiseptic agent (yellow ochre). This is either used as an actual filling, or as a splint to keep the tooth in place.

Egyptians also had various mouthwashes and mixtures that had to be chewed and then spit out, meant to combat gum disease. Some of these have more active ingredients than the others, and they certainly seem to have at least provided the patient with some manner of pain relief. These recipes have ingredients such as sweet beer, creeping cinquefoil, bran and celery in different compositions. Some of the mouthwashes were for the specific purpose of maintaining a healthy mouth and teeth.

But not everything is purely medicinal in Egyptian medicine. The Edwin Smith surgical papyrus gives us treatments that are, as the title suggests, much more surgical in nature. One case handles the dislocation of a jaw, and the treatment for this hasn’t changed in over five thousand years. Some of the discovered jaws and skulls have evidence of additional treatment next to the application of medicine. It’s not altogether impossible that Egyptian dentists knew how to drain an abscess, or cut away cankered gums.

Pharaonic physicians were no strangers to reconstruction works: there have been three instances of a dental bridge: one or more lost teeth reattached by means of a gold or silver wire to the surrounding teeth. However, it’s a bit unclear whether these works were performed during the life of the patient or after death – to tidy them up, as it were, before their burial.

All in all, the ancient Egyptians were very attached to their pearly whites, and took great care to treat the diseases they knew as best as they could. They were skilled in medicine and surgery, relying on actual treatment just as much, or perhaps even more, as they did on magic spells and prayers to the Gods.

image

Hesy-re, “Head of Dentists” - A Third Dynasty physician

Aah, the wonderful memories of my first year’s paper. <3

Reblogged 5 months ago from ancientpeoples

244 notes

ancient peoples, ancient egypt, dentistry, medicine, ancient medicine, attrition, caries, dental diseases, ancient treatments, papyri, medicinal papyri, dentists, history, long post, egyptology, egypt,

Dec 11

Working on my thesis proposal, so excited! I have a really badass title. It’s long, which is what makes it awesome. 

I hope it gets approved, though. It’s a not-too-subtle attempt to get at least some ancient Egyptian dentistry into my thesis, hehe. (I wrote my First Year’s Essay (for lack of a better name) on dentistry, and they won’t let me pick the subject again, even if there’s so much else to discuss. Boo.) I want to write on the treatment methods of head injuries and affections in medical texts and how - if - they can be compared to modern medicine. 

Posted 5 months ago

4 notes

egyptology, thesis, proposal, medicine, dentistry,

Nov 28

fuckyeahdutchhistory:

On this day in Dutch history

On the 28th of November 2000, the Dutch government accepted a proposal for a law to legalise euthanasia. The law itself didn’t come into force until the 1st of April 2002.

The Netherlands was the first country to legalise euthanasia. Belgium, Luxembourg and Switzerland are the only other European countries where euthanasia is legal. In the United States, euthanasia is legal in Oregon, Montana and Washinton. In these states, physicians are allowed to prescribe their patients barbiturates, so the patients can euthanise themselves. The physician is not allowed to play a more active role.

The debate for and against euthanasia had been going on in the Netherlands for some time. The Dutch Society for Voluntary Euthanasia was founded in Friesland in 1973 as a response to the Postma-case from 1971. Truus Postma, a physician, had given her terminally ill mother a lethal dose of morphine. Her mother’s own requests for euthanasia had been denied repeatedly.

Before the euthanasia law, some physicians did euthanise their patients. They did run the risk of being brought to court. A lot of physicians, understandably, didn’t want to run the risk of being punished for terminating someone’s life at the patient’s request. The Dutch Society for Voluntary Euthanasia’s goal was to keep the discussion about euthanasia going, and to have it legalised.

There are a lot of rules and regulations surrounding euthanasia, and about one-third of all applications get approved. In 2011, 3695 people were euthanised at their own request. In over 80% of euthanasia cases, the patient has terminal cancer. In case of under-18s, the parents/guardians have to give permission if the patient is between 12 and 16. 16 and 17 years olds can make the decision by themselves, but legally their parents/guardians have to be involved in the decisionmaking.

A physician is not obligated to help a patient with euthanasia, nor does the law mean that patients have a right to die. It simply gives patients the option to apply. Not all euthanasia requests that get approved also get carried out. For some patients, just having the approval and a willing physician helps them to deal with their situation. In other cases, the patient has already died before the euthanasia could be carried out.

Reblogged 5 months ago from fuckyeahdutchhistory

8 notes

Nederland, The Netherlands, politics, euthanasia, 20th century, 21st century, Dutch history, medicine,

Oct 10

Mummy with Mouthful of Cavities Discovered

archaeologicalnews:

Around 2,100 years ago, at a time when Egypt was ruled by a dynasty of Greek kings, a young wealthy man from Thebes was nearing the end of his life.

Rather than age, he  may have succumbed to a sinus infection caused by a mouthful of cavities and other tooth ailments, according to new research on the man’s odd dental filling.

Recently published CT scans of his mummified body allowed researchers to reconstruct details of his final days.

The man, whose name is unknown, was in his 20s or early 30s, and his teeth were in horrible shape. 

He had “numerous” abscesses and cavities, conditions that appear to have resulted, at some point, in a sinus infection, something potentially deadly, the study researchers said. Read more.

Yeah, so I really want to specialize in Ancient Egyptian dentistry, okay?

Reblogged 7 months ago from archaeologicalnews

59 notes

archaeology, mummy, cavities, egypt, dentistry, egyptology, ancient egypt, medicine,

Sep 28
ancientpeoples: Roman Wine Making and it’s Uses Ancient Roman winemaking involved the treading of the grapes quickly after harvesting. This treading was often done by feet in a manner similar to the French pigeage (a method by which the grapes are stomped on by feet in a large vat). The juice that was obtained by treading was the most prized and kept separate from the juice that would come from pressing the grape. This free run juice was also believed to have the most beneficial medicinal properties. Cato described the process of pressing as taking place in a special room which included an elevated concrete platform that contained a shallow basin with raised curbs. The basin was shaped with gentle slopes that lead to a run off point. Across the basin were long horizontal beams of wood with the front of the beams being attached by rope to a windlass apparatus. The crushed grapes were placed between the beams with pressure being applied by winding down the windlass. The pressed juice would run down between the beams into the basin where it was collected. The construction and use of Roman wine presses was labour intensive and expensive. Its use was mostly confined to large estates with smaller wineries relying on the use of treading alone in obtaining grape juice. If pressing was used, an estate would press the grape skins anywhere from one to three times. The juice that would come from later pressings would be coarser and more tannic with the juice from the third pressing normally being used to make the low quality wine lora. After pressing, the grape must was stored in large earthenware jars known as dolium. With a capacity up to several thousand liters, these jars were often partially buried into the floors of a barn or warehouse. In these jars fermentation would take place and would last anywhere from two weeks to 30 days before the wine would be removed and stored in amphora storage vessels. Small holes were drilled into the top to allow the pressure from carbon dioxide gas to escape. In the case of white wine production, the wine could be exposed to ageing on its lees which would enhance the flavor of the wine. Chalk and marble dust was sometimes added to lessen the “bite” or acidity in the wine. The wines were often exposed to high temperatures and “baked” in a manner similar to the process used to make the modern wine Madeira. To enhance sweetness in the wine, a portion of the must would be boiled to concentrate the sugars in process known as defrutum and then added with the rest of the fermenting batch. The writings of Columella suggest that the Romans believed that boiling the must also had preservation benefits. Lead was also sometimes used as a sweetening agent. Other methods to enhance sweetness included the addition of honey to the wine-with as much as 3 kilograms (6.6 lb) being recommended to sufficiently sweeten 12 litres of wine to Roman tastes. Another technique developed was to withhold a portion of the sweeter unfermented must and then blend in with the finished wine—a method known today as süssreserve. Medicinal Use The Romans believed that wine had both healing and destructive powers. It could heal the mind from depression, memory loss and grief as well as the body from various ailments-including bloating, constipation, diarrhea, gout, halitosis, snakebites, tapeworms, urinary problems and vertigo. Cato wrote extensively on the medical uses of wine, including espousing a recipe for creating wine that could aid as laxative by using grapes whose vines were treated to a mixture of ashes, manure and hellebore. He wrote that the flowers of certain plants like juniper and myrtle could be soaked in wine to help with snakebites and gout. Cato believed that a mixture of old wine and juniper, boiled in a lead pot could aid in urinary issues and that mixing wines with very acidic pomegranates would cure tapeworms. The 2nd century AD Greco-Roman physician Galen provides several details about how wine was used medicinally in later Roman times. In Pergamon, Galen was responsible for the diet and care of the gladiator. He made liberal use of wine in his practice and boasted that not a single gladiator died in his care. For wounds, he would bath them in wine as an antiseptic. He would also use wine as analgesic for surgery. When Galen became the physician of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, he worked on developed pharmaceutical drugs and concoctions made from wine known as theriacs. The abilities of the these theriacs developed superstitious beliefs that lasted till the 18th century and revolved around their “miraculous” ability to protect against poisons and cure everything fromthe plague to mouth sores. In his work De Antidotis, Galen notes the trend of Roman tastes from thick, sweet wines to lighter, dry wines that were easier to digest. The Romans were also aware of the negative health effects from wine, particularly the tendency towards “madness” if consumed beyond moderation. Lucretius warned that wine could provoke a fury in one’s soul and lead to quarrels. Seneca the Elder believed that drinking wine magnified the physical and psychological defects in the drinker. Drinking wine in excess was frowned upon and those that did were considered dangerous to society. The Roman politician Cicero would frequently accuse his rivals of being drunkards and a danger to Rome—most notably Mark Antony who apparently once drank to such excess that he vomited in the Senate. Religious Use In early Rome, the cult of Bacchus had a presence among the people of central and southern Italy by the 3rd century BC. Like its Greek counterpart, it soon came under suspicion by the ruling class. The cult was divided into local cells with their own hierarchical structures and oaths of loyalty. Most of the members were women and their Bacchanalia festivals were believed to include animal sacrifices and sexual orgies. The Roman Senate viewed these gatherings as a threat against Roman authority, banning the cult and the Bacchanalia in 186 BC. As Rome assimilated more cultures, they came across two religious groups that viewed wine in generally positive terms—Judaism and Christianity. Wine, grapes and the grape make frequent literal and allegorical appearances in both the Hebrew and Christian Bible. In the Torah, grape vines were one of the first crops planted after the Great Flood and during the scouting of Canaan, following the Exodus from Egypt, one of the positive reports about the land was that grapevines were abundant. The Jews under Roman rule accepted wine as part of their daily life but viewed negatively the excesses that they associated with Roman impurities. Many of the Jewish views on wine were adopted by the new Christian sect that emerged in the 1st century AD. One of the first miracles that the sect’s founder, Jesus, was reported to have done was to turn water into wine, and the central Christian sacrament of the Eucharist prominently involved wine. The Romans drew some parallels between the similarities of Bacchus and the Christ of Christianity. Both figures had stories draped in the symbolism of life after death—Bacchus in the yearly harvest and dormancy of the grape and Christ in the death and resurrection narratives. The act of the Eucharist in consuming (either metaphysically or metaphorically) Christ by drinking the wine has echoes of rites carried out in festivals dedicated to Bacchus. The influence and importance of wine in the Christian church was unmistakable, and the Church itself would soon take the mantle from Ancient Rome as the dominant influence in the world of wine for the centuries that followed, through the Renaissance.

ancientpeoples:

Roman Wine Making and it’s Uses

Ancient Roman winemaking involved the treading of the grapes quickly after harvesting. This treading was often done by feet in a manner similar to the French pigeage (a method by which the grapes are stomped on by feet in a large vat). The juice that was obtained by treading was the most prized and kept separate from the juice that would come from pressing the grape. This free run juice was also believed to have the most beneficial medicinal properties. Cato described the process of pressing as taking place in a special room which included an elevated concrete platform that contained a shallow basin with raised curbs. The basin was shaped with gentle slopes that lead to a run off point. Across the basin were long horizontal beams of wood with the front of the beams being attached by rope to a windlass apparatus. The crushed grapes were placed between the beams with pressure being applied by winding down the windlass. The pressed juice would run down between the beams into the basin where it was collected. The construction and use of Roman wine presses was labour intensive and expensive. Its use was mostly confined to large estates with smaller wineries relying on the use of treading alone in obtaining grape juice.

If pressing was used, an estate would press the grape skins anywhere from one to three times. The juice that would come from later pressings would be coarser and more tannic with the juice from the third pressing normally being used to make the low quality wine lora. After pressing, the grape must was stored in large earthenware jars known as dolium. With a capacity up to several thousand liters, these jars were often partially buried into the floors of a barn or warehouse. In these jars fermentation would take place and would last anywhere from two weeks to 30 days before the wine would be removed and stored in amphora storage vessels. Small holes were drilled into the top to allow the pressure from carbon dioxide gas to escape. In the case of white wine production, the wine could be exposed to ageing on its lees which would enhance the flavor of the wine. Chalk and marble dust was sometimes added to lessen the “bite” or acidity in the wine. The wines were often exposed to high temperatures and “baked” in a manner similar to the process used to make the modern wine Madeira. To enhance sweetness in the wine, a portion of the must would be boiled to concentrate the sugars in process known as defrutum and then added with the rest of the fermenting batch. The writings of Columella suggest that the Romans believed that boiling the must also had preservation benefits. Lead was also sometimes used as a sweetening agent. Other methods to enhance sweetness included the addition of honey to the wine-with as much as 3 kilograms (6.6 lb) being recommended to sufficiently sweeten 12 litres of wine to Roman tastes. Another technique developed was to withhold a portion of the sweeter unfermented must and then blend in with the finished wine—a method known today as süssreserve.

Medicinal Use

The Romans believed that wine had both healing and destructive powers. It could heal the mind from depression, memory loss and grief as well as the body from various ailments-including bloating, constipation, diarrhea, gout, halitosis, snakebites, tapeworms, urinary problems and vertigo. Cato wrote extensively on the medical uses of wine, including espousing a recipe for creating wine that could aid as laxative by using grapes whose vines were treated to a mixture of ashes, manure and hellebore. He wrote that the flowers of certain plants like juniper and myrtle could be soaked in wine to help with snakebites and gout. Cato believed that a mixture of old wine and juniper, boiled in a lead pot could aid in urinary issues and that mixing wines with very acidic pomegranates would cure tapeworms.

The 2nd century AD Greco-Roman physician Galen provides several details about how wine was used medicinally in later Roman times. In Pergamon, Galen was responsible for the diet and care of the gladiator. He made liberal use of wine in his practice and boasted that not a single gladiator died in his care. For wounds, he would bath them in wine as an antiseptic. He would also use wine as analgesic for surgery. When Galen became the physician of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, he worked on developed pharmaceutical drugs and concoctions made from wine known as theriacs. The abilities of the these theriacs developed superstitious beliefs that lasted till the 18th century and revolved around their “miraculous” ability to protect against poisons and cure everything fromthe plague to mouth sores. In his work De Antidotis, Galen notes the trend of Roman tastes from thick, sweet wines to lighter, dry wines that were easier to digest.

The Romans were also aware of the negative health effects from wine, particularly the tendency towards “madness” if consumed beyond moderation. Lucretius warned that wine could provoke a fury in one’s soul and lead to quarrels. Seneca the Elder believed that drinking wine magnified the physical and psychological defects in the drinker. Drinking wine in excess was frowned upon and those that did were considered dangerous to society. The Roman politician Cicero would frequently accuse his rivals of being drunkards and a danger to Rome—most notably Mark Antony who apparently once drank to such excess that he vomited in the Senate.

Religious Use

In early Rome, the cult of Bacchus had a presence among the people of central and southern Italy by the 3rd century BC. Like its Greek counterpart, it soon came under suspicion by the ruling class. The cult was divided into local cells with their own hierarchical structures and oaths of loyalty. Most of the members were women and their Bacchanalia festivals were believed to include animal sacrifices and sexual orgies. The Roman Senate viewed these gatherings as a threat against Roman authority, banning the cult and the Bacchanalia in 186 BC.

As Rome assimilated more cultures, they came across two religious groups that viewed wine in generally positive terms—Judaism and Christianity. Wine, grapes and the grape make frequent literal and allegorical appearances in both the Hebrew and Christian Bible. In the Torah, grape vines were one of the first crops planted after the Great Flood and during the scouting of Canaan, following the Exodus from Egypt, one of the positive reports about the land was that grapevines were abundant. The Jews under Roman rule accepted wine as part of their daily life but viewed negatively the excesses that they associated with Roman impurities. Many of the Jewish views on wine were adopted by the new Christian sect that emerged in the 1st century AD. One of the first miracles that the sect’s founder, Jesus, was reported to have done was to turn water into wine, and the central Christian sacrament of the Eucharist prominently involved wine. The Romans drew some parallels between the similarities of Bacchus and the Christ of Christianity. Both figures had stories draped in the symbolism of life after death—Bacchus in the yearly harvest and dormancy of the grape and Christ in the death and resurrection narratives. The act of the Eucharist in consuming (either metaphysically or metaphorically) Christ by drinking the wine has echoes of rites carried out in festivals dedicated to Bacchus. The influence and importance of wine in the Christian church was unmistakable, and the Church itself would soon take the mantle from Ancient Rome as the dominant influence in the world of wine for the centuries that followed, through the Renaissance.

Reblogged 7 months ago from ancientpeoples

57 notes

history, ancient history, ancient rome, romans, wine, wine making, ancient medicine, medicine, religious, ritual, roman, roman empire,

Sep 26

ancientpeoples:

The medicine of the Ancient Egyptians is some of the oldest documented. From the beginnings of the civilization in the c. 33rd century BC until the Persian invasion of 525 BC, Egyptian medical practice went largely unchanged and was highly advanced for its time, including simple non-invasive surgery, setting of bones and an extensive set of pharmacopoeia. Egyptian medical thought influenced later traditions, including the Greeks.

Until the 19th century, the main sources of information about ancient Egyptian medicine were writings from later in antiquity. Homer c. 800 BC remarked in the Odyssey:

“In Egypt, the men are more skilled in medicine than any of human kind” and “the Egyptians were skilled in medicine more than any other art”.

The Greek historian Herodotus visited Egypt around 440 BC and wrote extensively of his observations of their medicinal practices. Pliny the Elder also wrote favourably of them in historical review. Hippocrates (the “father of medicine”), Herophilos, Erasistratus and later Galen studied at the temple of Amenhotep, and acknowledged the contribution of ancient Egyptian medicine to Greek medicine.

After the secret of hieroglyphics had been unlocked the resultant interest in Egyptology in the 19th century led to the discovery of several sets of extensive ancient medical documents, including the Ebers papyrus, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, the Hearst Papyrus, the London Medical Papyrus and others dating back as far as 3000 BC. The Edwin Smith Papyrus is a textbook on surgery and details anatomical observations and the “examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis” of numerous ailments. It was probably written around 1600 BC, but is regarded as a copy of several earlier texts. Medical information in it dates from as early as 3000 BC. Imhotep in the 3rd dynasty is credited as the original author of the papyrus text, and founder of ancient Egyptian medicine. The earliest known surgery was performed in Egypt around 2750 BC.

The Ebers papyrus c. 1550 BC is full of incantations and foul applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons, and also includes 877 prescriptions. It may also contain the earliest documented awareness of tumours, if the poorly understood ancient medical terminology has been correctly interpreted.

Other documents as the Edwin Smith papyrus (1550 BC), Hearst papyrus (1450 BC), and Berlin papyrus (1200 BC) also provide valuable insight into ancient Egyptian medicine. The Edwin Smith papyrus for example mentioned research methods, the making of a diagnosis of the patient, and the setting of a treatment. It is thus viewed as a learning manual. Treatments consisted of ailments made from i.e. animal, vegetable or fruit substances or minerals. 

Medical knowledge in ancient Egypt had an excellent reputation, and rulers of other empires would ask the Egyptian pharaoh to send them their best physician to treat their loved ones. Egyptians had some knowledge of human anatomy. For example, in the classic mummification process, mummifiers knew how to insert a long hooked implement through a nostril, breaking the thin bone of the brain case and remove the brain. They also must have had a general idea of the location in the body cavity of the inner organs, which they removed through a small incision in the left groin. But whether this knowledge was passed on to the practitioners of medicine is unknown and does not seem to have had any impact on their medical theories.

Egyptian physicians were aware of the existence of the pulse and of a connection between pulse and heart. The author of the Smith Papyrus even had a vague idea of a cardiac system, although not of blood circulation and he was unable, or deemed it unimportant, to distinguish between blood vessels, tendons, and nerves. They developed their theory of “channels” that carried air, water and blood to the body by analogies with the River Nile; if it became blocked, crops became unhealthy and they applied this principle to the body: If a person was unwell, they would use laxatives to unblock the “channels”.

Surgery was a common practice among physicians as treatment for physical injuries. The Egyptian physicians recognized three categories of injuries; treatable, contestable, and untreatable ailments. Treatable ailments the surgeons would quickly set to right. Contestable ailments were those where the victim could presumably survive without treatment, so patients assumed to be in this category were observed and if they survived then surgical attempts could be made to fix the problem with them. They used knives, hooks, drills, forceps and pincers, scales, spoons, saws and a vase with burning incense.

Prosthetics, such as artificial toes and eyeballs, were also used; typically, they served little more than decorative purposes. In preparation for burial, missing body parts would be replaced (but these do not appear as if they would have been useful, or even attachable) before death.

The extensive use of surgery, mummification practices, and autopsy as a religious exercise gave Egyptians a vast knowledge of the body’s morphology, and even a considerable understanding of organ functions.(Minnesota State University). The function of most major organs were correctly presumed —for example, blood was correctly guessed to be a transpiration medium for vitality and waste which is not too far from its actual role in carrying oxygen and removing carbon dioxide— with the exception of the heart and brain whose functions were switched.

Magic and religion were an integral part of everyday life in ancient Egypt. Evil gods and demons were thought to be responsible for many ailments, so often the treatments involved a supernaturalelement, such as beginning treatment with an appeal to a deity. There does not appear to have existed a clear distinction between what nowadays one would consider the very distinct callings of priest and physician. The healers, many of them priests of Sekhmet, often used incantations and magic as part of treatment.

The widespread belief in magic and religion may have resulted in a powerful placebo effect; that is, the perceived validity of the cure may have contributed to its effectiveness. The impact of the emphasis on magic is seen in the selection of remedies or ingredients for them. Ingredients were sometimes selected seemingly because they were derived from a substance, plant or animal that had characteristics which in some way corresponded to the symptoms of the patient. This is known as the principle of simila similibus (“similar with similar”) and is found throughout the history of medicine up to the modern practice of homeopathy. Thus an ostrich egg is included in the treatment of a broken skull, and an amulet portraying a hedgehog might be used against baldness.

Amulets in general were very popular, being worn for many magical purposes. Health related amulets are classified as homeopoetic, phylactic and theophoric. Homeopoetic amulets portray an animal or part of an animal, from which the wearer hopes to gain positive attributes like strength or speed. Phylactic amulets protected against harmful gods and demons. The famous Eye of Horus was often used on a phylactic amulet. Theophoric amulets represented Egyptian gods; one represented the girdle of Isis and was intended to stem the flow of blood at miscarriage. They were often made of bone, hanging from a leather strap.

The ancient Egyptian word for doctor is “swnw”. This title has a long history. The earliest recorded physician in the world, Hesy-Ra, practiced in ancient Egypt. He was “Chief of Dentists and Physicians” to King Djoser, who ruled in the 27th century BC. The lady Peseshet (2400 BC) may be the first recorded female doctor: she was possibly the mother of Akhethotep, and on a stela dedicated to her in his tomb she is referred to as imy-r swnwt, which has been translated as “Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians” (swnwt is the feminine of swnw).

There were many ranks and specializations in the field of medicine. Royalty employed their own swnw, even their own specialists. There were inspectors of doctors, overseers and chief doctors. Known ancient Egyptian specialists are ophthalmologist, gastroenterologist, proctologist, dentist, “doctor who supervises butchers” and an unspecified “inspector of liquids”. The ancient Egyptian term for proctologist, neru phuyt, literally translates as “shepherd of the anus”.

Institutions, so called Houses of Life, are known to have been established in ancient Egypt since the 1st Dynasty and may have had medical functions, being at times associated in inscriptions with physicians, such as Peftauawyneit and Wedjahorresnet living in the middle of the first millennium BC. By the time of the 19th Dynasty their employees enjoyed such benefits as medical insurance, pensions and sick leave.

Reblogged 8 months ago from ancientpeoples

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history, ancient history, ancient egypt, egypt, egyptology, ancient medicine, egyptian medicine, medicine, papyrus, long post,

Sep 3
hominisaevum: Astrolabe Signed by Erasmus Habermel circa 1585; German Gilt brass and copper; 195 mm in diameter This instrument is engraved by Paduanius of Forli in Italy, a physician for whom Erasmus Habermel made some 28 instruments between 1585 and 1586. Among the patients of Paduanius was Rudolf II, for whom Habermel would act as instrument maker in Prague. Museum of the History of Science, Oxford

hominisaevum:

Astrolabe

Signed by Erasmus Habermel

circa 1585; German

Gilt brass and copper; 195 mm in diameter

This instrument is engraved by Paduanius of Forli in Italy, a physician for whom Erasmus Habermel made some 28 instruments between 1585 and 1586. Among the patients of Paduanius was Rudolf II, for whom Habermel would act as instrument maker in Prague.

Museum of the History of Science, Oxford

Reblogged 8 months ago from hominisaevum

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history, astrolab, medicine, engraving, paduanius of forli, rudolf ii, habermel, germany, italy,

Jun 18
ancientpeoples: Treatment methods for oral and dental ailments in Ancient Egypt Like us, the ancient Egyptians weren’t spared from oral ailments. Their diet, which was full of fibre and coarse, often uncooked, vegetables, in combination with a dental hygiene that possibly wasn’t up to our standards, caused various diseases such as attrition, caries and periodontitis. But the Egyptians were inventive, and not unversed in medical practices: they had devised many treatments for the various affections that bothered them, both chirurgical and medicinal in nature. Molars suffering from attrition Common diseases Attrition was by far the most common affection in ancient Egypt. Caused by the coarse diet (which may also have lacked necessary minerals and vitamins) and the presence of sand, husks, and sometimes even straw, in their bread, many Egyptians suffered from this condition. The skulls and jaws found in burial shafts and tombs almost all show attrition to some degree. This may not sound like a very serious disease, but attrition, when left unchecked, can be a stepping stone to much more severe issues. It can lead to abscesses, inflammation of the gums and jawbone, and tooth loss. Despite a diet free of refined sugar, caries was still fairly well represented amongst Egypt’s pearly whites. Interestingly enough, this disease seemed to have been much more common among the elite than it was among lower classes. This may be attributed to the higher sugar content in the diet of higher class Egyptians. Other conditions, most of them attested in medical papyri such as papyrus Ebers, were dental abscesses (“purulency in the gums”), receding gums (“a tooth which gnaws against an opening in the flesh”), loose teeth, ulcerative stomatitis (“eating ulcer on the gums”), periodontitis (“blood-eating”), alveolar diseases, dental sepsis and calculus. Lower jaw with traces of a periodontal abscess (the small hole in the bone) Cures, treatments and dentists So what did the ancient Egyptians do about this? Dental conditions aren’t to be taken lightly: they can very well prove lethal if they remain untreated. There’s some discussion on whether or not the profession of dentist existed in Pharaonic Egypt, mostly because of the seeming lack of actual surgery to cure these affections. To some extent, physicians in Egypt relied on spells and other magic for their treatments, but medicinal therapy was just as big a part of this. The papyri Ebers, Hearst and Berlin give us quite some recipes which could very well have made a difference by alleviating the pain or even inhibiting inflammation. If we define the term dentist as one who knows and attempts to cure diseases of the mouth, then there certainly have been dentists in Pharaonic times. The papyrus Ebers has eleven recipes which pertain to oral issues. Four of these are remedies for loose teeth: the tooth in question is either ‘packed’ or ‘filled’ (the translation and therefore our interpretation is a little ambiguous) with a mixture that is akin to a modern day composite filling: a filler agent (ground barley) is mixed with a liquid matrix (honey) and an antiseptic agent (yellow ochre). This is either used as an actual filling, or as a splint to keep the tooth in place. Egyptians also had various mouthwashes and mixtures that had to be chewed and then spit out, meant to combat gum disease. Some of these have more active ingredients than the others, and they certainly seem to have at least provided the patient with some manner of pain relief. These recipes have ingredients such as sweet beer, creeping cinquefoil, bran and celery in different compositions. Some of the mouthwashes were for the specific purpose of maintaining a healthy mouth and teeth. But not everything is purely medicinal in Egyptian medicine. The Edwin Smith surgical papyrus gives us treatments that are, as the title suggests, much more surgical in nature. One case handles the dislocation of a jaw, and the treatment for this hasn’t changed in over five thousand years. Some of the discovered jaws and skulls have evidence of additional treatment next to the application of medicine. It’s not altogether impossible that Egyptian dentists knew how to drain an abscess, or cut away cankered gums. Pharaonic physicians were no strangers to reconstruction works: there have been three instances of a dental bridge: one or more lost teeth reattached by means of a gold or silver wire to the surrounding teeth. However, it’s a bit unclear whether these works were performed during the life of the patient or after death – to tidy them up, as it were, before their burial. All in all, the ancient Egyptians were very attached to their pearly whites, and took great care to treat the diseases they knew as best as they could. They were skilled in medicine and surgery, relying on actual treatment just as much, or perhaps even more, as they did on magic spells and prayers to the Gods. Hesy-re, “Head of Dentists” - A Third Dynasty physician My first entry for this wonderful blog is about a subject near and dear to my heart: ancient Egyptian dentistry. I&#8217;m hoping to do my BA thesis on this very subject, as an excuse for some experimental archaeology. Follow Ancient Peoples for all your ancient history needs! We cover everything from  mythology to jurisdiction to society to literature to medicine, and more, from Greece and Rome to Egypt and the Levant to China and beyond!

ancientpeoples:

Treatment methods for oral and dental ailments in Ancient Egypt

Like us, the ancient Egyptians weren’t spared from oral ailments. Their diet, which was full of fibre and coarse, often uncooked, vegetables, in combination with a dental hygiene that possibly wasn’t up to our standards, caused various diseases such as attrition, caries and periodontitis. But the Egyptians were inventive, and not unversed in medical practices: they had devised many treatments for the various affections that bothered them, both chirurgical and medicinal in nature.

Molars suffering from attrition

Common diseases

Attrition was by far the most common affection in ancient Egypt. Caused by the coarse diet (which may also have lacked necessary minerals and vitamins) and the presence of sand, husks, and sometimes even straw, in their bread, many Egyptians suffered from this condition. The skulls and jaws found in burial shafts and tombs almost all show attrition to some degree. This may not sound like a very serious disease, but attrition, when left unchecked, can be a stepping stone to much more severe issues. It can lead to abscesses, inflammation of the gums and jawbone, and tooth loss.

Despite a diet free of refined sugar, caries was still fairly well represented amongst Egypt’s pearly whites. Interestingly enough, this disease seemed to have been much more common among the elite than it was among lower classes. This may be attributed to the higher sugar content in the diet of higher class Egyptians.

Other conditions, most of them attested in medical papyri such as papyrus Ebers, were dental abscesses (“purulency in the gums”), receding gums (“a tooth which gnaws against an opening in the flesh”), loose teeth, ulcerative stomatitis (“eating ulcer on the gums”), periodontitis (“blood-eating”), alveolar diseases, dental sepsis and calculus.

Lower jaw with traces of a periodontal abscess (the small hole in the bone)

Cures, treatments and dentists

So what did the ancient Egyptians do about this? Dental conditions aren’t to be taken lightly: they can very well prove lethal if they remain untreated. There’s some discussion on whether or not the profession of dentist existed in Pharaonic Egypt, mostly because of the seeming lack of actual surgery to cure these affections. To some extent, physicians in Egypt relied on spells and other magic for their treatments, but medicinal therapy was just as big a part of this. The papyri Ebers, Hearst and Berlin give us quite some recipes which could very well have made a difference by alleviating the pain or even inhibiting inflammation. If we define the term dentist as one who knows and attempts to cure diseases of the mouth, then there certainly have been dentists in Pharaonic times.

The papyrus Ebers has eleven recipes which pertain to oral issues. Four of these are remedies for loose teeth: the tooth in question is either ‘packed’ or ‘filled’ (the translation and therefore our interpretation is a little ambiguous) with a mixture that is akin to a modern day composite filling: a filler agent (ground barley) is mixed with a liquid matrix (honey) and an antiseptic agent (yellow ochre). This is either used as an actual filling, or as a splint to keep the tooth in place.

Egyptians also had various mouthwashes and mixtures that had to be chewed and then spit out, meant to combat gum disease. Some of these have more active ingredients than the others, and they certainly seem to have at least provided the patient with some manner of pain relief. These recipes have ingredients such as sweet beer, creeping cinquefoil, bran and celery in different compositions. Some of the mouthwashes were for the specific purpose of maintaining a healthy mouth and teeth.

But not everything is purely medicinal in Egyptian medicine. The Edwin Smith surgical papyrus gives us treatments that are, as the title suggests, much more surgical in nature. One case handles the dislocation of a jaw, and the treatment for this hasn’t changed in over five thousand years. Some of the discovered jaws and skulls have evidence of additional treatment next to the application of medicine. It’s not altogether impossible that Egyptian dentists knew how to drain an abscess, or cut away cankered gums.

Pharaonic physicians were no strangers to reconstruction works: there have been three instances of a dental bridge: one or more lost teeth reattached by means of a gold or silver wire to the surrounding teeth. However, it’s a bit unclear whether these works were performed during the life of the patient or after death – to tidy them up, as it were, before their burial.

All in all, the ancient Egyptians were very attached to their pearly whites, and took great care to treat the diseases they knew as best as they could. They were skilled in medicine and surgery, relying on actual treatment just as much, or perhaps even more, as they did on magic spells and prayers to the Gods.

Hesy-re, “Head of Dentists” - A Third Dynasty physician

My first entry for this wonderful blog is about a subject near and dear to my heart: ancient Egyptian dentistry. I’m hoping to do my BA thesis on this very subject, as an excuse for some experimental archaeology.

Follow Ancient Peoples for all your ancient history needs! We cover everything from  mythology to jurisdiction to society to literature to medicine, and more, from Greece and Rome to Egypt and the Levant to China and beyond!

Reblogged 11 months ago from ancientpeoples

244 notes

ancient peoples, ancient egypt, dentistry, medicine, ancient medicine, attrition, caries, dental diseases, ancient treatments, papyri, medicinal papyri, dentists,